# Statistical Reporting Standards

This document provides guidelines for reporting statistical analyses according to APA (American Psychological Association) style and general best practices for academic publications.

## General Principles

1. **Transparency**: Report enough detail for replication
2. **Completeness**: Include all planned analyses and outcomes
3. **Honesty**: Report non-significant findings and violations
4. **Clarity**: Write for your audience, define technical terms
5. **Reproducibility**: Provide code, data, or supplements when possible

---

## Pre-Registration and Planning

### What to Report (Ideally Before Data Collection)

1. **Hypotheses**: Clearly stated, directional when appropriate
2. **Sample size justification**: Power analysis or other rationale
3. **Data collection stopping rule**: When will you stop collecting data?
4. **Variables**: All variables collected (not just those analyzed)
5. **Exclusion criteria**: Rules for excluding participants/data points
6. **Statistical analyses**: Planned tests, including:
   - Primary analysis
   - Secondary analyses
   - Exploratory analyses (labeled as such)
   - Handling of missing data
   - Multiple comparison corrections
   - Assumption checks

**Why pre-register?**
- Prevents HARKing (Hypothesizing After Results are Known)
- Distinguishes confirmatory from exploratory analyses
- Increases credibility and reproducibility

**Platforms**: OSF, AsPredicted, ClinicalTrials.gov

---

## Methods Section

### Participants

**What to report**:
- Total N, including excluded participants
- Relevant demographics (age, gender, etc.)
- Recruitment method
- Inclusion/exclusion criteria
- Attrition/dropout with reasons

**Example**:
> "Participants were 150 undergraduate students (98 female, 52 male; M_age = 19.4 years, SD = 1.2, range 18-24) recruited from psychology courses in exchange for course credit. Five participants were excluded due to incomplete data (n = 3) or failing attention checks (n = 2), resulting in a final sample of 145."

### Design

**What to report**:
- Study design (between-subjects, within-subjects, mixed)
- Independent variables and levels
- Dependent variables
- Control variables/covariates
- Randomization procedure
- Blinding (single-blind, double-blind)

**Example**:
> "A 2 (feedback: positive vs. negative) × 2 (timing: immediate vs. delayed) between-subjects factorial design was used. Participants were randomly assigned to conditions using a computer-generated randomization sequence. The primary outcome was task performance measured as number of correct responses (0-20 scale)."

### Measures

**What to report**:
- Full name of measure/instrument
- Number of items
- Scale/response format
- Scoring method
- Reliability (Cronbach's α, ICC, etc.)
- Validity evidence (if applicable)

**Example**:
> "Depression was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck et al., 1996), a 21-item self-report measure rated on a 4-point scale (0-3). Total scores range from 0 to 63, with higher scores indicating greater depression severity. The BDI-II demonstrated excellent internal consistency in this sample (α = .91)."

### Procedure

**What to report**:
- Step-by-step description of what participants did
- Timing and duration
- Instructions given
- Any manipulations or interventions

**Example**:
> "Participants completed the study online via Qualtrics. After providing informed consent, they completed demographic questions, were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, completed the experimental task (approximately 15 minutes), and finished with the outcome measures and debriefing. The entire session lasted approximately 30 minutes."

### Data Analysis

**What to report**:
- Software used (with version)
- Significance level (α)
- Tail(s) of tests (one-tailed or two-tailed)
- Assumption checks conducted
- Missing data handling
- Outlier treatment
- Multiple comparison corrections
- Effect size measures used

**Example**:
> "All analyses were conducted using Python 3.12 with Pingouin 0.6, SciPy 1.16, and statsmodels 0.14.6. An alpha level of .05 was used for all significance tests. Assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were assessed using Shapiro-Wilk and Levene's tests, respectively. Missing data (< 2% for all variables) were handled using listwise deletion. Outliers beyond 3 SD from the mean were winsorized. For the primary ANOVA, partial eta-squared (η²_p) is reported as the effect size measure. Post hoc comparisons used Tukey's HSD to control family-wise error rate."

---

## Results Section

### Descriptive Statistics

**What to report**:
- Sample size (for each group if applicable)
- Measures of central tendency (M, Mdn)
- Measures of variability (SD, IQR, range)
- Confidence intervals (when appropriate)

**Example (continuous outcome)**:
> "Group A (n = 48) had a mean score of 75.2 (SD = 8.5, 95% CI [72.7, 77.7]), while Group B (n = 52) scored 68.3 (SD = 9.2, 95% CI [65.7, 70.9])."

**Example (categorical outcome)**:
> "Of the 145 participants, 89 (61.4%) chose Option A, 42 (29.0%) chose Option B, and 14 (9.7%) chose Option C."

**Tables for descriptive statistics**:
- Use tables for multiple variables or groups
- Include M, SD, and n (minimum)
- Can include range, skewness, kurtosis if relevant

---

### Assumption Checks

**What to report**:
- Which assumptions were tested
- Results of diagnostic tests
- Whether assumptions were met
- Actions taken if violated

**Example**:
> "Normality was assessed using Shapiro-Wilk tests. Data for Group A (W = 0.97, p = .18) and Group B (W = 0.96, p = .12) did not significantly deviate from normality. Levene's test indicated homogeneity of variance, F(1, 98) = 1.23, p = .27. Therefore, assumptions for the independent samples t-test were satisfied."

**Example (violated)**:
> "Shapiro-Wilk tests indicated significant departure from normality for Group C (W = 0.89, p = .003). Therefore, the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used instead of the independent samples t-test."

---

### Inferential Statistics

#### T-Tests

**What to report**:
- Test statistic (t)
- Degrees of freedom
- p-value (exact if p > .001, otherwise p < .001)
- Effect size (Cohen's d or Hedges' g) with CI
- Direction of effect
- Whether test was one- or two-tailed

**Format**: t(df) = value, p = value, d = value, 95% CI [lower, upper]

**Example (independent t-test)**:
> "Group A (M = 75.2, SD = 8.5) scored significantly higher than Group B (M = 68.3, SD = 9.2), t(98) = 3.82, p < .001, d = 0.77, 95% CI [0.36, 1.18], two-tailed."

**Example (paired t-test)**:
> "Scores increased significantly from pretest (M = 65.4, SD = 10.2) to posttest (M = 71.8, SD = 9.7), t(49) = 4.21, p < .001, d = 0.64, 95% CI [0.33, 0.95]."

**Example (Welch's t-test)**:
> "Due to unequal variances, Welch's t-test was used. Group A scored significantly higher than Group B, t(94.3) = 3.65, p < .001, d = 0.74."

**Example (non-significant)**:
> "There was no significant difference between Group A (M = 72.1, SD = 8.3) and Group B (M = 70.5, SD = 8.9), t(98) = 0.91, p = .36, d = 0.18, 95% CI [-0.21, 0.57]."

---

#### ANOVA

**What to report**:
- F statistic
- Degrees of freedom (effect, error)
- p-value
- Effect size (η², η²_p, or ω²)
- Means and SDs for all groups
- Post hoc test results (if significant)

**Format**: F(df_effect, df_error) = value, p = value, η²_p = value

**Example (one-way ANOVA)**:
> "There was a significant main effect of treatment condition on test scores, F(2, 147) = 8.45, p < .001, η²_p = .10. Post hoc comparisons using Tukey's HSD revealed that Condition A (M = 78.2, SD = 7.3) scored significantly higher than Condition B (M = 71.5, SD = 8.1, p = .002, d = 0.87) and Condition C (M = 70.1, SD = 7.9, p < .001, d = 1.07). Conditions B and C did not differ significantly (p = .52, d = 0.18)."

**Example (factorial ANOVA)**:
> "A 2 (feedback: positive vs. negative) × 2 (timing: immediate vs. delayed) between-subjects ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of feedback, F(1, 146) = 12.34, p < .001, η²_p = .08, but no significant main effect of timing, F(1, 146) = 2.10, p = .15, η²_p = .01. Critically, the interaction was significant, F(1, 146) = 6.78, p = .01, η²_p = .04. Simple effects analysis showed that positive feedback improved performance for immediate timing (M_diff = 8.2, p < .001) but not for delayed timing (M_diff = 1.3, p = .42)."

**Example (repeated measures ANOVA)**:
> "A one-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect of time point on anxiety scores, F(2, 98) = 15.67, p < .001, η²_p = .24. Mauchly's test indicated that the assumption of sphericity was violated, χ²(2) = 8.45, p = .01, therefore Greenhouse-Geisser corrected values are reported (ε = 0.87). Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction showed..."

---

#### Correlation

**What to report**:
- Correlation coefficient (r or ρ)
- Sample size
- p-value
- Direction and strength
- Confidence interval
- Coefficient of determination (r²) if relevant

**Format**: r(df) = value, p = value, 95% CI [lower, upper]

**Example (Pearson)**:
> "There was a moderate positive correlation between study time and exam score, r(148) = .42, p < .001, 95% CI [.27, .55], indicating that 18% of the variance in exam scores was shared with study time (r² = .18)."

**Example (Spearman)**:
> "A Spearman rank-order correlation revealed a significant positive association between class rank and motivation, ρ(118) = .38, p < .001, 95% CI [.21, .52]."

**Example (non-significant)**:
> "There was no significant correlation between age and reaction time, r(98) = -.12, p = .23, 95% CI [-.31, .08]."

---

#### Regression

**What to report**:
- Overall model fit (R², adjusted R², F-test)
- Coefficients (B, SE, β, t, p) for each predictor
- Effect sizes
- Confidence intervals for coefficients
- Variance inflation factors (if multicollinearity assessed)

**Format**: B = value, SE = value, β = value, t = value, p = value, 95% CI [lower, upper]

**Example (simple regression)**:
> "Simple linear regression showed that study hours significantly predicted exam scores, F(1, 148) = 42.5, p < .001, R² = .22. Specifically, each additional hour of study was associated with a 2.4-point increase in exam score (B = 2.40, SE = 0.37, β = .47, t = 6.52, p < .001, 95% CI [1.67, 3.13])."

**Example (multiple regression)**:
> "Multiple linear regression was conducted to predict exam scores from study hours, prior GPA, and attendance. The overall model was significant, F(3, 146) = 45.2, p < .001, R² = .48, adjusted R² = .47. Study hours (B = 1.80, SE = 0.31, β = .35, t = 5.78, p < .001, 95% CI [1.18, 2.42]) and prior GPA (B = 8.52, SE = 1.95, β = .28, t = 4.37, p < .001, 95% CI [4.66, 12.38]) were significant predictors, but attendance was not (B = 0.15, SE = 0.12, β = .08, t = 1.25, p = .21, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.39]). Multicollinearity was not a concern, as all VIF values were below 1.5."

**Example (logistic regression)**:
> "Logistic regression was conducted to predict pass/fail status from study hours. The overall model was significant, χ²(1) = 28.7, p < .001, Nagelkerke R² = .31. Each additional study hour increased the odds of passing by 1.35 times (OR = 1.35, 95% CI [1.18, 1.54], p < .001). The model correctly classified 76% of cases (sensitivity = 81%, specificity = 68%)."

---

#### Chi-Square Tests

**What to report**:
- χ² statistic
- Degrees of freedom
- p-value
- Effect size (Cramér's V or φ)
- Observed and expected frequencies (or percentages)

**Format**: χ²(df, N = total) = value, p = value, Cramér's V = value

**Example (2×2)**:
> "A chi-square test of independence revealed a significant association between treatment group and outcome, χ²(1, N = 150) = 8.45, p = .004, φ = .24. Specifically, 72% of participants in the treatment group improved compared to 48% in the control group."

**Example (larger table)**:
> "A chi-square test examined the relationship between education level (high school, bachelor's, graduate) and political affiliation (liberal, moderate, conservative). The association was significant, χ²(4, N = 300) = 18.7, p = .001, Cramér's V = .18, indicating a small to moderate association."

**Example (Fisher's exact)**:
> "Due to expected cell counts below 5, Fisher's exact test was used. The association between treatment and outcome was significant, p = .018 (two-tailed), OR = 3.42, 95% CI [1.21, 9.64]."

---

#### Non-Parametric Tests

**Mann-Whitney U**:
> "A Mann-Whitney U test indicated that Group A (Mdn = 75, IQR = 10) had significantly higher scores than Group B (Mdn = 68, IQR = 12), U = 845, z = 3.21, p = .001, r = .32."

**Wilcoxon signed-rank**:
> "A Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that scores increased significantly from pretest (Mdn = 65, IQR = 15) to posttest (Mdn = 72, IQR = 14), z = 3.89, p < .001, r = .39."

**Kruskal-Wallis**:
> "A Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences among the three conditions, H(2) = 15.7, p < .001, η² = .09. Follow-up pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction showed..."

---

#### Bayesian Statistics

**What to report**:
- Prior distributions used
- Posterior estimates (mean/median, credible intervals)
- Bayes Factor (if hypothesis testing)
- Convergence diagnostics (R-hat, ESS)
- Posterior predictive checks

**Example (Bayesian t-test)**:
> "A Bayesian independent samples t-test was conducted using weakly informative priors (Normal(0, 1) for mean difference). The posterior distribution of the mean difference had a mean of 6.8 (95% credible interval [3.2, 10.4]), indicating that Group A scored higher than Group B. The Bayes Factor BF₁₀ = 45.3 provided very strong evidence for a difference between groups. There was a 99.8% posterior probability that Group A's mean exceeded Group B's mean."

**Example (Bayesian regression)**:
> "A Bayesian linear regression was fitted with weakly informative priors (Normal(0, 10) for coefficients, Half-Cauchy(0, 5) for residual SD). The model showed that study hours credibly predicted exam scores (β = 0.52, 95% CI [0.38, 0.66]; 0 not included in interval). All convergence diagnostics were satisfactory (R-hat < 1.01, ESS > 1000 for all parameters). Posterior predictive checks indicated adequate model fit."

---

## Effect Sizes

### Always Report

**Why**:
- p-values don't indicate magnitude
- Required by APA and most journals
- Essential for meta-analysis
- Informs practical significance

**Which effect size?**
- T-tests: Cohen's d or Hedges' g
- ANOVA: η², η²_p, or ω²
- Correlation: r (already is an effect size)
- Regression: β (standardized), R², f²
- Chi-square: Cramér's V or φ

**With confidence intervals**:
- Always report CIs for effect sizes when possible
- Shows precision of estimate
- More informative than point estimate alone

---

## Figures and Tables

### When to Use Tables vs. Figures

**Tables**:
- Exact values needed
- Many variables/conditions
- Descriptive statistics
- Regression coefficients
- Correlation matrices

**Figures**:
- Patterns and trends
- Distributions
- Interactions
- Comparisons across groups
- Time series

### Figure Guidelines

**General**:
- Clear, readable labels
- Sufficient font size (≥ 10pt)
- High resolution (≥ 300 dpi for publications)
- Monochrome-friendly (colorblind-accessible)
- Error bars (SE or 95% CI; specify which!)
- Legend when needed

**Common figure types**:
- Bar charts: Group comparisons (include error bars)
- Box plots: Distributions, outliers
- Scatter plots: Correlations, relationships
- Line graphs: Change over time, interactions
- Violin plots: Distributions (better than box plots)

**Example figure caption**:
> "Figure 1. Mean exam scores by study condition. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001."

### Table Guidelines

**General**:
- Clear column and row labels
- Consistent decimal places (usually 2)
- Horizontal lines only (not vertical)
- Notes below table for clarifications
- Statistical symbols in italics (p, M, SD, F, t, r)

**Example table**:

**Table 1**
*Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations*

| Variable | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 |
|----------|---|----|----|----|----|
| 1. Study hours | 5.2 | 2.1 | — | | |
| 2. Prior GPA | 3.1 | 0.5 | .42** | — | |
| 3. Exam score | 75.3 | 10.2 | .47*** | .52*** | — |

*Note*. N = 150. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

---

## Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. **Reporting p = .000**: Report p < .001 instead
2. **Omitting effect sizes**: Always include them
3. **Not reporting assumption checks**: Describe tests and outcomes
4. **Confusing statistical and practical significance**: Discuss both
5. **Only reporting significant results**: Report all planned analyses
6. **Using "prove" or "confirm"**: Use "support" or "consistent with"
7. **Saying "marginally significant" for .05 < p < .10**: Either significant or not
8. **Reporting only one decimal for p-values**: Use two (p = .03, not p = .0)
9. **Not specifying one- vs. two-tailed**: Always clarify
10. **Inconsistent rounding**: Be consistent throughout

---

## Null Results

### How to Report Non-Significant Findings

**Don't say**:
- "There was no effect"
- "X and Y are unrelated"
- "Groups are equivalent"

**Do say**:
- "There was no significant difference"
- "The effect was not statistically significant"
- "We did not find evidence for a relationship"

**Include**:
- Exact p-value (not just "ns" or "p > .05")
- Effect size (shows magnitude even if not significant)
- Confidence interval (may include meaningful values)
- Power analysis (was study adequately powered?)

**Example**:
> "Contrary to our hypothesis, there was no significant difference in creativity scores between the music (M = 72.1, SD = 8.3) and silence (M = 70.5, SD = 8.9) conditions, t(98) = 0.91, p = .36, d = 0.18, 95% CI [-0.21, 0.57]. A post hoc sensitivity analysis revealed that the study had 80% power to detect an effect of d = 0.57 or larger, suggesting the null finding may reflect insufficient power to detect small effects."

---

## Reproducibility

### Materials to Share

1. **Data**: De-identified raw data (or aggregate if sensitive)
2. **Code**: Analysis scripts
3. **Materials**: Stimuli, measures, protocols
4. **Supplements**: Additional analyses, tables

**Where to share**:
- Open Science Framework (OSF)
- GitHub (for code)
- Journal supplements
- Institutional repository

**In paper**:
> "Data, analysis code, and materials are available at https://osf.io/xxxxx/"

---

## Checklist for Statistical Reporting

- [ ] Sample size and demographics
- [ ] Study design clearly described
- [ ] All measures described with reliability
- [ ] Procedure detailed
- [ ] Software and versions specified
- [ ] Alpha level stated
- [ ] Assumption checks reported
- [ ] Descriptive statistics (M, SD, n)
- [ ] Test statistics with df and p-values
- [ ] Effect sizes with confidence intervals
- [ ] All planned analyses reported (including non-significant)
- [ ] Figures/tables properly formatted and labeled
- [ ] Multiple comparisons corrections described
- [ ] Missing data handling explained
- [ ] Limitations discussed
- [ ] Data/code availability statement

---

## Additional Resources

- APA Publication Manual (7th edition)
- CONSORT guidelines (for RCTs)
- STROBE guidelines (for observational studies)
- PRISMA guidelines (for systematic reviews/meta-analyses)
- Wilkinson & Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals.
